Basic Concepts of Chemistry
Matter and Its Classification
States of matter: solid, liquid, gas, plasma, Bose-Einstein condensate
Classification of matter: elements, compounds, mixtures
Laws of Chemical Combination
Law of conservation of mass, law of definite proportions
Law of multiple proportions, Avogadro’s hypothesis
Atomic and Molecular Masses
Atomic mass, molecular mass, molar mass, mole concept
Stoichiometry
Balancing chemical equations
Calculations involving moles, molar ratios, limiting reagents
Atomic Structure
Fundamental Particles
Protons, neutrons, electrons
Atomic Models
Dalton’s atomic theory, Thomson’s model, Rutherford’s model
Bohr’s model, quantum mechanical model of the atom
Quantum Numbers and Electronic Configuration
Quantum numbers, Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle, Hund’s rule
Isotopes, Isobars, and Isotones
Properties and applications of isotopes
Periodic Table and Periodicity
Development of the Periodic Table
Mendeleev’s periodic table, modern periodic table
Periodic Trends
Atomic and ionic radii, ionization energy, electron affinity
Electronegativity, metallic and non-metallic character
Types of Chemical Bonds
Ionic bonds, covalent bonds, coordinate bonds
Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
Valence Bond Theory (VBT) and Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT)
Bond order, bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals
VSEPR Theory and Molecular Geometry
Shapes of molecules, bond angles
Intermolecular Forces
Dipole-dipole interactions, London dispersion forces, hydrogen bonding
Gaseous State
Gas laws: Boyle’s law, Charles’s law, Avogadro’s law
States of Matter
Gaseous State
Ideal gas equation, real gases, and Van der Waals equation
Liquid State
Properties of liquids: vapor pressure, surface tension, viscosity
Solid State
Types of solids: crystalline and amorphous
Crystal lattice, unit cell, types of crystal systems
Thermodynamics
Basic Concepts
System, surroundings, types of systems
Types of processes: isothermal, adiabatic, isobaric, and isochoric
Laws of Thermodynamics
Zeroth, First, Second, and Third Laws of Thermodynamics
Enthalpy, Entropy, and Gibbs Free Energy
Concept of enthalpy, entropy, spontaneity of reactions
Dynamic Nature of Equilibrium
Reversible and irreversible reactions
Law of Mass Action and Equilibrium Constant
Kc and Kp, relation between Kc and Kp
Chemical Equilibrium
Le Chatelier’s Principle
Applications of Le Chatelier’s principle in chemical reactions
Acids, Bases, and Salts
Concepts of Acids and Bases
Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis concepts
pH Scale and Buffer Solutions
pH calculations, buffer solutions, and their importance
Acid-Base Indicators
Natural and synthetic indicators, universal indicators
Common Salts and Their Uses
Properties and uses of important salts
Redox Reactions and Electrochemistry
Oxidation and Reduction
Concept of oxidation number, balancing redox reactions
Electrochemical Cells
Galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, cell potential
Electrolysis and Faraday’s Laws
Electrolysis, applications, Faraday’s laws of electrolysis
Batteries and Fuel Cells
Primary and secondary batteries, fuel cells
Chemical Kinetics
Rate of Reaction and Factors Affecting It
Rate of reaction, rate law, order of reaction
Activation Energy and Arrhenius Equation
Concept of activation energy, factors affecting rate
Catalysts and Enzymes
Role of catalysts, enzymes in biochemical reactions
Surface Chemistry
Adsorption
Types of adsorption, factors affecting adsorption
Colloids
Types of colloids, properties, and applications
Emulsions
Types of emulsions, their formation, and uses
Solutions
Types of Solutions
Solubility, concentration terms: molarity, molality, normality
Colligative Properties
Osmotic pressure, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression
Raoult’s Law
Ideal and non-ideal solutions
Organic Chemistry
Basic Concepts in Organic Chemistry
Functional groups, homologous series
Isomerism: structural isomerism, stereoisomerism
Hydrocarbons
Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes: properties, reactions
Important Organic Reactions
Substitution, addition, elimination, and oxidation reactions
Polymers
Types of polymers, polymerization, and common polymers (e.g., polyethylene, PVC)
Important Organic Compounds and Applications
Alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, acids, amines
Biomolecules and Chemistry in Daily Life
Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Fats
Structure, properties, functions, and importance
Vitamins and Hormones
Types, importance, and deficiency diseases
Enzymes and Their Functions
Role of enzymes in biochemical reactions
Drugs and Medicines
Analgesics, antibiotics, antiseptics, and disinfectants
Chemicals in Food
Food preservatives, artificial sweeteners, antioxidants
Environmental Chemistry
Pollution and Pollutants
Air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution
Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
Causes and consequences of global warming
Ozone Layer Depletion
Causes, effects, and preventive measures
Waste Management
Types of waste, recycling, biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances
Industrial Chemistry
Important Industrial Processes
Haber process, Contact process, Solvay process
Metallurgy and Extraction of Metals
Ore processing, extraction of iron, copper, aluminum
Petroleum and Petrochemicals
Fractional distillation of petroleum, refining, and petrochemicals
Fertilizers, Cement, and Glass
Types and uses of fertilizers, cement production, and glass manufacturing