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1. Overview of Le Chatelier’s Principle

1. Le Chatelier’s Principle states that when a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in concentration, pressure, or temperature, the system adjusts itself to minimize the effect of the disturbance and restore a new equilibrium.
2. This principle helps predict the direction in which the equilibrium will shift in response to external changes.

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1. Law of Mass Action

1. The Law of Mass Action states that the rate of a chemical reaction is directly proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants raised to their respective stoichiometric coefficients.
2. For a reversible reaction: aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD, the equilibrium expression is: 

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1. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

1. The Zeroth Law establishes the concept of thermal equilibrium.
2. If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
3. It provides the foundation for the measurement of temperature.
4. Temperature is a property that determines whether systems are in thermal equilibrium.
5. This law is fundamental to the design of thermometers.

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System

1. A system refers to the part of the universe under study or observation.
2. The boundaries of a system separate it from the surroundings.
3. Systems are classified based on the type of exchanges that occur across their boundaries.
4. Examples of systems include a gas in a cylinder, a chemical reaction in a flask, or a biological cell.
5. A system is defined in terms of its properties such as temperature, pressure, volume, and composition.

Surroundings

1. The surroundings

Crystal Lattice

1. A crystal lattice is a three-dimensional arrangement of points that represent the positions of particles (atoms, ions, or molecules) in a crystalline solid.
2. Each point in the lattice is called a lattice point.
3. The crystal lattice depicts the geometric arrangement of particles in space.
4. The regular and repeating pattern of the lattice gives crystals their characteristic shape.
5. The smallest repeating unit in a lattice is called the unit cell.

Crystalline Solids

1. Crystalline solids have a highly ordered and periodic arrangement of particles (atoms, ions, or molecules).
2. They possess a definite geometric shape and well-defined edges.
3. Crystalline solids exhibit long-range order, meaning their structure is uniform over a large scale.
4. These solids have sharp and characteristic melting points.
5. They are anisotropic, meaning their properties (e.g., refractive index, conductivity) vary with direction.
6. Ex