Vapor Pressure

1. Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by the vapor of a liquid in equilibrium with its liquid phase at a given temperature.
2. It depends on the temperature and the nature of the liquid.
3. As the temperature increases, the vapor pressure also increases due to higher kinetic energy of the molecules.
4. A liquid with a higher vapor pressure at a given temperature is considered more volatile.
5. The temperature at which the vapor pressure equals atmospheric pre

Ideal Gas Equation

1. The ideal gas equation is given by PV = nRT, where:
   • P = Pressure
   • V = Volume
   • n = Number of moles
   • R = Universal gas constant (8.314 J/mol·K)
   • T = Temperature in Kelvin
2. This equation is derived by combining Boyle’s law, Charles’s law, and Avogadro’s law.
3. The ideal gas equation assumes that gases behave perfectly under all conditions

Ionic Bonds

1. Ionic bonds are formed by the complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another.
2. These bonds occur between a metal and a non-metal.
3. The atom that loses electrons becomes a cation, and the atom that gains electrons becomes an anion.
4. The bond is held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions.
5. Common examples include sodium chloride (NaCl) and magnesium oxide (MgO

Overview of Gas Laws

1. Gas laws describe the behavior of gases under various conditions of pressure, temperature, and volume.
2. These laws are based on the kinetic theory of gases, which assumes that gas molecules are in constant random motion.
3. The major gas laws include Boyle’s law, Charles’s law, and Avogadro’s law.
4. The combined gas laws form the foundation for the ideal gas equation, PV = nRT.

Boyle’s Law

Overview of Intermolecular Forces

1. Intermolecular forces are forces of attraction or repulsion between neighboring molecules.
2. They are weaker than intramolecular forces (such as covalent or ionic bonds).
3. These forces determine physical properties like boiling points, melting points, and solubility.
4. The three main types of intermolecular forces are dipole-dipole interactions, London dispersion forces, and hydrogen bonding.

VSEPR Theory

1. VSEPR Theory stands for Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory.
2. It is used to predict the shape of molecules based on electron pair repulsion.
3. The theory states that electron pairs around a central atom arrange themselves to minimize repulsion.
4. Both bonding pairs and lone pairs of electrons influence molecular geometry.
5. Lone pairs occupy more space than bonding pairs due to greater repulsion.
6. The molecu

Valence Bond Theory (VBT)

1. Valence Bond Theory (VBT) explains the formation of chemical bonds through the overlap of atomic orbitals.
2. In VBT, atoms combine by overlapping their valence orbitals to form bonds.
3. The overlapping orbitals contain unpaired electrons, which pair up to form a covalent bond.
4. Bond strength depends on the extent of overlap; greater overlap results in stronger bonds.
5. VBT distinguishes between sigma (σ) and pi (π) bonds based

Electronegativity

1. Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract shared electrons in a chemical bond.
2. Measured on the Pauling scale, where fluorine has the highest value (4.0).
3. Electronegativity increases across a period from left to right due to increasing nuclear charge and a smaller atomic radius.
4. Electronegativity decreases down a group as atomic size increases, reducing the pull on shared electrons.
5. Non-metals like oxygen, nitrogen, and fluor

Atomic and Ionic Radii

1. The atomic radius is the distance from the nucleus to the outermost shell of an atom.
2. Atomic radius decreases across a period due to increased nuclear charge, which pulls electrons closer to the nucleus.
3. Atomic radius increases down a group because of the addition of new electron shells.
4. Cations (positively charged ions) have smaller radii than their parent atoms due to the loss of electrons and reduced electron-electron re

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

1. Proposed by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869.
2. Based on the periodic recurrence of properties of elements when arranged in order of increasing atomic mass.
3. Contained 63 known elements at the time.
4. Mendeleev organized elements into rows and columns to form the periodic table.
5. He left gaps in the table for undiscovered elements and predicted their properties accurately, such as gallium (eka-aluminum) and g