1. Introduction to the Uncertainty Principle

1. Proposed by Werner Heisenberg in 1927 as a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics.
2. The principle states that it is impossible to simultaneously measure both the position and momentum of a particle with absolute precision.
3. The more precisely one quantity is known, the less precisely the other can be determined.

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1. Introduction to Quantum Physics

1. Quantum physics is the study of phenomena at atomic and subatomic levels.
2. Revolutionized classical physics by introducing the concept of quantization.
3. Developed to explain phenomena that could not be explained by classical theories.

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1. Introduction to Dual Nature of Light

1. Light exhibits both wave and particle properties, known as the dual nature of light.
2. Wave nature: Demonstrated by interference and diffraction.
3. Particle nature: Demonstrated by the photoelectric effect and Compton scattering.
4. First proposed in quantum theory by Max Planck and Albert Einstein.

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1. Wave-Particle Duality

1. Proposed to explain the dual nature of light and electromagnetic radiation.
2. Light exhibits both wave-like and particle-like properties.
3. Wave nature: Demonstrated by interference and diffraction.
4. Particle nature: Demonstrated by the photoelectric effect.

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1. Radio Waves

1. Longest wavelength and lowest frequency in the spectrum.
2. Used in radio broadcasting, television signals, and mobile communication.
3. Essential for radar and GPS technology.

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1. Electromagnetic Spectrum

1. The electromagnetic spectrum consists of different types of electromagnetic waves arranged based on their wavelength and frequency.
2. It includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays.
3. The waves differ in their wavelength (λ), frequency (f), and energy.

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1. Conductors

1. Conductors are materials that allow the easy flow of electric current.
2. Their conductivity is due to the presence of free electrons.
3. Examples include metals such as copper, aluminum, and silver.
4. Conductors have very low resistivity (10⁻⁶ to 10⁻⁸ Ω·m).
5. They are widely used in electrical wiring and electronic circuits.

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1. Introduction to Cathode Rays

1. Cathode rays are streams of electrons emitted from the cathode in a vacuum tube.
2. They were first observed by J.J. Thomson, who identified them as negatively charged particles (electrons).
3. Cathode rays are produced when a high voltage is applied across a vacuum tube with a cathode and anode.
4. They travel in straight lines and cause fluorescence when they strike certain materials.

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