Botany | iexam

Types of roots: taproot, fibrous, adventitious

Plant Morphology

Root, Stem, and Leaf

Modifications of roots (storage, support, respiration)

Types and modifications of stems (rhizomes, tubers, runners)

Leaf structure, types, venation (parallel, reticulate), and phyllotaxy

Flower Structure and Inflorescence

Parts of a flower (sepals, petals, stamens, pistil)

Types of inflorescence (racemose, cymose)

Fruits and Seeds

Classification of fruits: simple, aggregate, multiple

Seed structure and types of germination (epigeal, hypogeal)

Tissues and Tissue Systems

Meristematic tissue: apical, lateral, intercalary

Permanent tissue: simple (parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma) and complex (xylem, phloem)

Anatomy of Root, Stem, and Leaf

Monocot and dicot root structure

Monocot and dicot stem and leaf anatomy

Secondary Growth

Vascular cambium and cork cambium, their roles in thickening

Secondary growth in dicot stems and roots

Plant Physiology

Structure of chloroplasts, light and dark reactions

C3, C4, and CAM pathways, factors affecting photosynthesis

Types of respiration: aerobic and anaerobic

Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

Plant-Water Relations

Diffusion, osmosis, and plasmolysis

Absorption and movement of water: transpiration, ascent of sap, transpiration pull

Mineral Nutrition

Essential nutrients, deficiency symptoms, and their functions

Nitrogen fixation, nitrogen cycle, role of Rhizobium

Plant Growth and Development

Growth regulators: auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene, abscisic acid

Photoperiodism and vernalization

Plant Kingdom (Classification and Diversity)

Characteristics, types (green, brown, red algae), economic importance

Characteristics, life cycle (mosses, liverworts)

Characteristics, importance, types (ferns)

Characteristics, life cycle, economic significance

Characteristics, classification (monocots and dicots), structure

Cell Structure and Function

Prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic cells, plant cell structure

Cell Organelles

Cell wall, plasma membrane, nucleus, chloroplasts, vacuoles

Structure and function of mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes

Mitosis and meiosis, cell cycle, significance of cell division

Genetics and Evolution

Principles of Inheritance and Variation

Mendel’s laws, monohybrid and dihybrid crosses

Linkage and crossing over, polygenic inheritance

Molecular Basis of Inheritance

Structure of DNA and RNA, replication, transcription, translation

Genetic code, mutations, types of mutations

Concepts of evolution, natural selection, speciation

Darwin’s theory, modern synthetic theory, genetic drift

Plant Ecology and Environment

Ecosystems and Ecological Succession

Structure and function of ecosystems, food chains, and food webs

Types of ecosystems, primary and secondary succession

Environmental Pollution

Types of pollution (air, water, soil), effects on plants and ecosystems

Conservation methods, role of plants in combating pollution

Biodiversity and Conservation

Levels of biodiversity, threats to biodiversity

Conservation methods: in situ and ex situ conservation

Biogeochemical Cycles

Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and water cycles

Plant Reproduction and Development

Asexual Reproduction

Vegetative propagation: runners, tubers, bulbs, grafting

Tissue culture and its applications

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Structure of the flower, pollination, fertilization

Development of seeds and fruit formation

Seed Germination and Dormancy

Types of germination, factors affecting germination

Seed dormancy and methods to break dormancy

Plant Breeding and Biotechnology

Objectives, hybridization, heterosis, selection methods

Genetic Engineering

Recombinant DNA technology, gene cloning

Applications in agriculture (e.g., GM crops, pest-resistant plants)

Tissue Culture and Micropropagation

Methods and applications of tissue culture

Use of micropropagation in plant breeding

Economic Botany and Plant Utilization

Importance of cereals (wheat, rice, maize) and pulses

Medicinal Plants

Uses of neem, tulsi, aloe vera, ashwagandha, etc.

Fibers and Timber Plants

Cotton, jute, bamboo, teak, their uses and significance

Beverage Plants

Coffee, tea, cocoa, their cultivation and uses

Oil and Latex-Producing Plants

Coconut, mustard, rubber, importance and applications