Physics

1. Heat transfer is the movement of thermal energy from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature.
2. There are three primary modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation.

Conduction

1. Conduction is the transfer of heat through a material without the movement of the material itself.
2. It occurs mainly in solids, where particles are tightly packed.
3. The rate of conduction is described by Fourier’s Law: Q = -kA(dT/dx)

1. Heat capacity is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a body by 1 degree Celsius or Kelvin.
2. The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin (J/K).
3. Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of a substance by 1 degree Celsius or Kelvin.
4. The formula for specific heat capacity is c = Q / (m × ΔT), where:
   • Q is the heat energy supplied.
   • m is the mass of the substance.

1. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance.
2. Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between systems due to a temperature difference.
3. There are three primary temperature scales used in thermodynamics: Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin.
4. The Celsius scale (°C) is widely used in most parts of the world and in scientific work.
5. In the Celsius scale, the freezing point of water is 0°C an

1. Surface tension is the property of a liquid's surface to resist external forces and minimize its surface area.
2. It is caused by the cohesive forces between liquid molecules, which are stronger at the surface.
3. The SI unit of surface tension is newton per meter (N/m).
4. Surface tension enables the formation of spherical droplets in liquids like water and mercury.
5. Capillary action is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without external forces like gravity.
6. It occurs due to

1. Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow, caused by internal friction between fluid layers.
2. Fluids with higher viscosity flow more slowly, while those with lower viscosity flow more freely.
3. The SI unit of viscosity is the pascal-second (Pa·s), and the CGS unit is the poise.
4. Newtonian fluids obey Newton’s law of viscosity, where shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain.
5. Non-Newtonian fluids do not follow Newton’s law

1. Bernoulli’s Theorem is a fundamental principle in fluid dynamics, stating that the total mechanical energy of an incompressible and non-viscous fluid remains constant along a streamline.
2. The mathematical expression for Bernoulli’s equation is: P + ½ρv² + ρgh = constant, where:
   • P is the pressure energy per unit volume.
   • ½ρv² is the kinetic energy per unit volume.
   • ρgh is the potential energy per unit volume.
3. Bernoulli’s equation

1. Pressure in a fluid is defined as the force exerted per unit area by the fluid on the walls of its container or any object in the fluid.
2. The formula for pressure is: P = F/A, where P is pressure, F is force, and A is area.
3. The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa), where 1 Pa = 1 N/m².
4. In a static fluid, pressure increases with depth due to the weight of the overlying fluid, given by P = ρgh, w

1. Fluids are substances that can flow and take the shape of their container, including liquids and gases.
2. Density (ρ) is the mass per unit volume of a fluid, given by the formula ρ = m/V, where m is mass and V is volume.
3. The SI unit of density is kg/m³.
4. Pressure (P) is defined as the force exerted per unit area, expressed as P = F/A, where F is force and A is area.
5. The SI

1. Elasticity is the property of a material to regain its original shape and size when the deforming force is removed.
2. The elastic modulus quantifies a material's ability to resist deformation under stress.
3. There are three primary types of elastic moduli: Young’s modulus, bulk modulus, and shear modulus.
4. Young’s modulus (Y) measures the elasticity of a material under tensile or compressive stress.
5. The formula for Young’s modulus

1. Elasticity is the property of a material to return to its original shape and size after the removal of an external force.
2. Stress is defined as the internal restoring force per unit area induced in a material when subjected to an external force.
3. The formula for stress is: Stress = Force / Area, and its unit is Pascals (Pa).
4. Strain is the measure of the deformation of a material, defined as the ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension.
5. There